Table 1 Fundus autofluorescence imaging modalities. Excitation wavelengths, barrier filters, fields of view, advantages, and disadvantages of commercially available FAF systems. Although some systems use multiple wavelengths, only the FAF excitation wavelength is provided

Fundus camera

Better for visualizing exudative retinal disease, red-shifted wavelengths decrease absorption by macular pigments and reduce lens interference, can be used with FA, color imaging, decreased motion artifact, more comfortable for patient

No real-time averaging, poor contrast, capture more reflected and scattered light, prone to pseudo-autofluorescence

Topcon TRC-50DX

535–585 nm

615–715

20, 35, 50

Non-mydriatic, also offers FA, ICG

Zeiss Visucam 224/524

510–580 nm

650–735

30, 45

Non-mydriatic. Visucam 524 with FA and optional ICG

Canon CR-2 plus AF (non mydriatic)

530–580

640

35, 45

Non-mydriatic, also offers cobalt setting

Confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscope (cSLO)

Confocal optics reduces interference from the lens, real-time averaging, high contrast, high resolution, decreased scattered light

Excitation beam is absorbed by macular pigments, cannot be preceded by fluorescein angiography, fixation loss, monochromatic, patient discomfort

Heidelberg retinal angiograph (HRA 2)

488 nm

500

20, 30, 55

No longer commercially available

Heidelberg spectralis

488 nm

500

20, 30, 55

Also offers red-free, FA, ICG, simultaneous FA/ICG, infrared reflectance, multicolor imaging, dual wavelength technology can calculate macular pigment density, spectral domain OCT

Zeiss prototype SM 30 4024 (ZcSLO)

488 nm

521

20, 40

No longer commercially available

Rodenstock (RcSLO)

488 nm

515

20, 40

No longer commercially available

Nidek F-10

490 nm

510

40, 60

Also offers multicolor imaging, retro-mode, FA, ICG

Widefield cSLOs

Detects peripheral findings, non-mydriatic, brief image acquisition time, can be used with FA

Disadvantages vary by system and lens

Optos ultra-widefield

532 nm, 633 nm

540

200

Decreased absorption by macular pigments, also offers color fundus, red-free, FA, ICG

No real-time averaging, poor contrast, distortion of peripheral retina, view limited in superior and inferior quadrants, lid/lash artifact

Staurenghi lens

N/A

N/A

150

Lens attaches to cSLO

Requires placement of contact lens

Heidelberg ultra-widefield lens

N/A

N/A

105

Lens attaches to HRA or Spectralis. High contrast, non-distorted images, no lid/lash artifact, can be used with fluorescein angiography

Smaller field of view, view limited in nasal and temporal quadrants